Several city agencies have been referred to in this paper without explanation. In my own research, I found myself confused by the multiple agencies involved, as well as the time periods or areas in which these agencies worked. Moreover, I was intrigued by the manholes associated with both the Old and New Croton Aqueduct and associated water mains; some of these manholes are marked with DPW, others with WSNY, and still others with other cryptic acronyms. For the purposes of clarifying both this paper and the city infrastructure, therefore, I include this brief history of the agencies involved.

Originally the responsibility for hiring surveyors, engineers, and contractors for the first Croton Aqueduct was under "The Board of Water Commissioners." This board was created by the Common Council in 1834, and they commissioned the original surveying that showed the feasibility of using the Croton river, and later hired J. Jervis as the overseeing engineer on the project.

In 1842, as the aqueduct was being finished, the Common Council set up the "Croton Aqueduct Board," which was in charge of the distributing pipes, which carried the water throughout the city from the reservoir at 42nd Street and 5th Avenue.

On April 11, 1849 the Legislature created the "Croton Aqueduct Department." This Department was then responsible for the distributing pipes as well as the Aqueduct.

It must be recognized, of course, that responsibility for the water system does not mean independent power to actually do anything, and funding in particular requires going back to the other parts of the city bureaucracy. In 1846, for example, the Board of Water Commissioners first informed the city that another reservoir would be needed in Central Park (the original reservoir, on the site of the Great Lawn, was insufficient to supply the city for the several-day period needed to do a full inspection of the masonry conduit). However, it was not until 1851 that the Croton Aqueduct Department was authorized to use the land to build the new reservoir.

At the same time, the City was acquiring land for Central Park. The Water Commissioners had originally wanted a rectangular plot, from 86th to 95th streets and between 5th and 7th avenues; however, by special agreement with the Park Commission, the Aqueduct Department eventually used a plot that conformed to the shape of the land, which resulted in a 96-acre reservoir with a shape that is close to rectilinear. This is the present-day body of water in Central Park known as "The Reservoir." The ground for this reservoir was not actually broken until April 17, 1858, and it was put into service in 1862, 14 years after the Board of Water Commissioners had first articulated its necessity. This was actually quite speedy for a process that required cooperation between various departments of the city’s government.

The Croton Aqueduct Department was superseded in 1870 by the Department of Public Works, which was created by Chapter 137 of the Laws of 1870. Most of the manholes associated with both the old and new croton aqueducts are marked with a "DPW," because a great deal of the water infrastructure was built or rebuilt at this time.

In 1883, the New Croton Aqueduct and Reservoir were put under the newly created Aqueduct Commission. However, this commission was created only to oversee these specific projects, taking place upstate, and so most of the visible water supply infrastructure within the city limits of New York was still under the auspices of the Department of Public Works.

In 1898 the city was consolidated with the outer Boroughs, and the Department of Water Supply, Gas, and Electricity (D.W.S.G.&E.) was formed. The Board of Estimate also authorized the issuance of $4 million in bonds to enhance the water systems in Brooklyn, drill wells in Queens and build a dam to create the Cross River reservoir.

It has been suggested, in fact, that a significant factor in Brooklyn’s willingness to join the consolidation was their lack of a suitable water source, in stark contrast to the free-flowing water in Manhattan. Despite the connections to NYC’s water, some water-supply problems continued in Brooklyn and Queens, as well as in the rest of Long Island. There has always been some reliance on wells that draw water from the Long Island aquifer-- that is, the fresh water in the porous layers of the ground-- but over the years, the aquifer has been significantly reduced. Wire-making and other industries have disposed of chemical and industrial waste down "dry wells," and seepage from these holes has affected the water supply. More importantly, perhaps, so much of Long Island has been paved over that rainwater can no longer seep into the ground effectively to replenish the aquifer. Thus, the saline water from the ocean water table has seeped in to fill this vacuum, leaving a much shallower (and still shrinking) aquifer available to supply drinking water.

The Department of Water Supply, Gas, and Electricity did preliminary surveys on the expansion of the water systems, and then in 1902, Mayor Seth Low appointed an independent committee, the Commission on Additional Water Supply for the City of New York, to study the city's water situation. Their Report of November 30, 1903 was a massive document that, among other things, estimated that 40 mill gallons were lost each day and recommended universal metering and plumbing regulations and inspections. The report made it clear as well that whatever conservation was practiced, the expansion of the city would still necessitate further acquisition of water sources. It recommended therefore the examination of a number of potential sites for further expansion of the water supply.

Realizing that the city was going to try to grab more land and water, some upstate counties sought legislative protection from acquisition. At the same time, the state clarified and expanded the city’s water-supply privileges. In 1904, for example, water bonds were exempted from the city’s debt limit. In 1905, Chapters 723 and 724 of the Laws of 1905 were signed, including the McClellan Act.

These chapters also created the five-person State Water Supply Commission, authorized to approve or reject and New York City water plan.

Significant elements of the McClellan Act included the empowerment of the city to take possession of land and/or dwellings for the water system just ten days after giving notice, and required the city to pay owners only one-half of the assessed valuation of the property.

The McClellan Act also required the appointment by the Mayor of the Board of Water Supply to oversee the process of New York City’s water system development. This three-person Board hired engineers and planners and administrated the development of the Catskill system, even as the New Croton system was being completed. Although it was originally intended just to oversee the development of the Catskill system, this Board of Water Supply became a permanent agency in New York City.

However, the authority of the Board of Water supply is limited to the construction of new reservoirs, aqueducts, pumping plants, and other infrastructure. Thus when the Catskill system was completed, or when any other reservoir or pipeline was completed, it was turned over to the Department of Water Supply, Gas, and Electricity for maintenance.

Currently, control of New York City’s Water supply system is under the Department of Environmental Protection (DEP). Within the DEP, the Bureau of Water Supply (BWS) manages, operates, and protects the upstate portions of the water supply system. The Bureau of Water and Sewer Operations (BWSO), also within the DEP, maintains and operates all of the drinking water and wastewater systems in the City.

At the inverted siphons, specifically High Bridge and Manhattan Valley, the force of gravity pressurized the water on the downhill, and forced it up to an equal height on the other side. However, this meant that at the low point, there was a great deal of force applied from the weight of the water on the pipe. Also, friction was much higher in these pipes; thus, in order to keep the water flowing fast enough, a drop of several feet was built into both of these locations. This drop in grade of several feet is significant when one considers that for the Bronx/Manhattan section, the intended slope of the conduit was only 13 inches per mile. Thus the inverted-siphon solution was used only when the significant savings in money made the loss of height worthwhile.

MORTON PLAYGROUND
AQUEDUCT LANDS

In the early 19th century, New York City grew faster and larger than any other city in the Western Hemisphere. Like most American cities of the time, New York suffered from an unreliable and polluted water supply. Terrible fires and recurring epidemics of yellow fever and cholera periodically devastated the city. In 1834 the state legislature approved a plan to use the Croton River as the city's water supply. Construction began in 1837 to build the Croton Dam, a 41-mile-long conduit, 114 stone culverts, numerous bridges and embankments, and reservoirs at Central Park and 42nd Street and Fifth Avenue (now Bryant Park). The Croton Aqueduct opened with great fanfare on July 4, 1842. The gravity-fed system, completed at a cost of about $13.5 million, was one of the greatest engineering feats of the 19th century.

BARNHILL TRIANGLE
Aqueduct Lands

This triangle honors Reverend Oliver Paul Barnhill (d. 1934) who led the congregation at the Fordham Manor (Dutch) Reformed Church from 1924 to 1934. Reverend Barnhill was born in LaGrange, Kentucky and attended, in succession, Poplar Grove Academy, Center College, and Princeton University, where he received an M.A. He served as an assistant at the Memorial Presbyterian Church of Brooklyn for twelve years and as associate pastor of the Marble Collegiate Church from 1916 to 1923. Based on his credentials and what the New York Evening Telegram described as "an exceedingly agreeable personality," he was asked to serve as pastor of the Fordham Manor Reformed Church; he started on October 7, 1923.